The best way to grow chilli.

So far we have been looking at communication for the purpose of protection. We have explored how plants communicate through chemicals, contact, light and sound. Recently, a study has potentially identified a conversation between basil (Ocimum basilicum) and chilli plants (Capsicum annuum). This study will confirm what many gardeners have been witnessing since the dawn of agricultural practice. That is, chilli does best with basil. The study found that when blocking communication lines such as light, contact and sound, chilli germination rates were high. More seedlings grew than without the presence of basil. If growing with fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), germination rates are lower than usual. The mechanism for communication in this case is unknown. However, researchers are suggesting a possible acoustic signal generation via nanomechanical oscillations from inside the cell. (Gagliano & Renton 2013). This finding is a small step into gathering support for the acoustic communication hypothesis. However, understanding this modality could have great impact on the management of conservation as well as agriculture.

Figure1. Chilli and basil growing together in a pot. Photographer: Rosie. Marie.2007


References:

Gagliano, M.,Renton, M.2013. Love thy neighbour; facilitation through the alternative signalling modality in plants. BMC Ecology.13:19

Who is responsible for what? Function of jasmonates and Green leaf volatiles in plant development and stress response.

Below are a few brief descriptions of the compounds that are responsible for some of the signals we have been looking at in plant communication.

Unsaturated fatty acids oxidation products are known as oxylipins. Oxylipins are compounds are a diverse group of substances involved in different stress response in plants. (Andersson et.al. 2006)

In plants, oxylipins can form enzymatically mainly. Non -enzymatic autoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids can also contribute to oxylipin formation in plants. (Kolomlets et al. 2013)

In response to stress, these substances can exert protective signaling molecules in plants during wounding, development and insect or pathogen attack. They can even direct anti-microbial substance that is toxic to the invader. (Farag and Pare, 2002).

The function of the majority of oxiplipins in plants is unknown. Jasmonates such as jasmonic acids, methyl jasmonate, cisjasmone and jasmonoyl isoleucine are well studied.
Green leaf volatiles are also well studied. They include C6 aldehydes, alcohols and thier esters which are formed through hydroperoxide lyase pathways downstream of lipoxygenases.
Their role is thought to be defense response against herivory.Green leaf volatiles have the ability to trigger local and systemic volatile organic compound emissions. (Kolomlets et al. 2013).


Figure 1. JA- deficient corn.
Andersson, M.X., Hamberg, M., Kourtchenko, O., Brunnstom, A. McPhail, K.L, Gerwick, W.H, Gobel, C., Feussner, I., Ellerstrom, M.2006.l Oxylipin profiling of hypersensitive response in Arabidopsis thaliana. Formatio of a novel oxo-phytodienoic acid containing galactolipid, arabidospide E. J Biol Chem, 281:31528-31537.

Farag, M.A., Pare, P.W.2002. C-6 Green leaf volatiles trigger local and systemic VOC emissions in toato.Phytochemistry 61, 545-554.

Kolomiets, M.W., Borrego, E., Yuanxin, Y.2013. Jasmonate Biosynthesis, Perception and Funciton in Plant Development and Stress Responses. Lipid Metabolism. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/52675.

Family Ties

Imagine if one of your siblings were adopted and you were never told. If you bumped into this long lost sibling on the street, would you be able to discern if they were a stranger, or if  they were your biological brother or sister? Does your behaviour change when you recognise a person walking by? Like us, some plants can recognize their relatives, reacting and responding to their presence.
 

Kin and stranger recognition has been demonstrated in some species including legumes (Dudley & File 2007). However, the extent of this phenomena in the plant kingdom is unknown. A species from the northern hemisphere, the North American Impatiens pallida, has demonstrated kin recognition. I.pallida or Yellow Jewelweed are herbaceous annual plants found in moist, woody and shady areas. Subjects were exposed to aboveground light quality cues of competition, and to the presence of root neighbours to determine whether responses were influenced by the presence of neighbours or kin. (Murphey & Dudley 2009).

Figure 1. Impatiens pallida  commonly known as Yellow Jewelweed, growing in the woods in North America. Photographer: Christopher C.N C.

The study found that I.pallida were capable of kin recognition below ground and could respond above ground if below ground cues are present. That is, they could recognise the presence of strangers and relatives using their roots. Individual plants increased stem elongation and branchiness in response to kin. On the other hand, if a stranger was present, I.pallida responded by increasing leaf to root allocation (Murphy & Dudley 2009). Another species that has been observed to increase root allocation when it shares a pot with strangers is the American searocket, Cakile endulata. C.edulata is found to grow in sandy beaches where light is plentiful and belowground resources are limited. A very different habitat compared with I.pallida. (Dudley & File 2007)

Figure 2. American searocket , Cakile endulata has demonstrated kin recognition and can be made into salads. Photographer: Sunny Savage.

Kin recognition is advantageous in competitive situations. It can reduce costly competitive behaviour and promote cooperation among siblings. Looking at the life history of plants, it can be said that these traits were likely to occur given that dispersal often results in highly related groups of neighbours (O’Brien et al.2005).

References: 

Dudley, S.A., File, A.L. 2007. Kin recognition in annual plant. Biology Letters. 3: 435-438.

O’Brien, E.E., Gersani, M., Brown, J., S. 2005. Root proliferation and seed yield in response to spatial heterogeneity of below – grown competition. New Phytologist. 168: 401-412.

Murphey, P. G., Dudley, S.A.2009. Kin Recognition: Competition and cooperation in Impatiens (Balsaminaceae).American Journal of Botany. Vol. 96. 11: 1990-1996. 

Figure 1. Impatiens pallida  commonly known as Yellow Jewelweed, growing in the woods in North America. Photographer: Christopher C.N C.  http://outsideclyde.blogspot.com.au/2013/05/weed-it-and-they-will-come.html Image retrieved 20/04/15.

Figure 2. American searocket , Cakile endulata has demonstrated kin recognition and can be made into salads. Photographer: Sunny Savage. http://wildfoodplants.com/2007/08/sea-rocket-rocks/ Image retrieved 20/04/2015.

Beat of the drum: Plant Bioacoustics.

I will scratch your back if you scratch mine . Co-evolution between fungi and land plants.

The majority of terrestrial (land) plants associate with mycorrhizal fungi ( Cairney et al 2000).This association can connect the roots of neighbouring plants into common mycelium networks (CMN's). We touched on this topic last week looking at the chemical secretion between plants in response to drought.However, there are many other uses for these underground highways of information. In fact, to answer some of your questions, it is thought that 90% of land plants have co -evolved with fungi in a mutualistic symbiosis. These mutualisms allow the plants to connect with each other, as well as performing a range of other functions (Babikova & Johnson et al 2013). 

 

Figure 1. Aphid species attached to plant stem. Photographer: Yongxin zhang (2012).

So as we have seen, plants can communicate through the air with the release of volatile compounds in response to herbivory. This type of communication has been observed between roots as well. It has been observed that insect herbivory can trigger the release of the volatile methyl salicylate. In the bean plant, Vicia faba, methyl salicylate production can repell aphids. Not only do they repell; they  also attract aphid enemies! Such as parasitoids. This particular study demonstrates that plants are not only able to  protect themselves through CMN cables, but they are directly aiming to communicate and therefore influence the behaviour of insects (Babikova & Gilbert et al 2013).

References:

Babikova, Z., Gilbert L., Bruce, T., J., Birkett, M., Caulfield J., C., Woodcock., C., Pickett., J., A., Johnson., D. 2013. Underground signals carried through mycelial networks warm neighbouring plants of aphid attack. Ecology Letters, Vol 16. 7: 835-843.

Babikova, Z., Johnson, D., Bruce, T., Pickett, J., Gilbert., L.2013. Underground allies: How and why do mycelial networks help plants defend themselves? Bioessays, vol 36, 1 - 21-26.

Cairney, J., W., G. 2000. Evolution of mycorrhiza systems. Naturwissenschaften. 87L 467-475.
Zhang, Y. (2012). Aphid species attached to plant stem. http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/plant-problems/pests/insects/homemade-aphid-control.htm; retrieved 02/04/ .